Everything below concerns sublimation. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2025-12-13. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Freeze-drying is used for materials whose activity or structure depends on low temperature and low water content. Examples include certain biologics, diagnostic reagents, starter cultures, coffee, and porous inorganic precursors. The dried product forms a cake whose porosity aids rapid wetting and dissolution. Main drawbacks are high energy use, long cycle times, and sensitivity to formulation and equipment variation. Questions remain about how freezing rates and ice morphology affect batch uniformity, especially when moving from laboratory to production scale.
Lyophilization, also called freeze-drying, is a dehydration process in which a solvent, usually water, is frozen and then removed by sublimation under reduced pressure. The method preserves heat-sensitive materials that would degrade in conventional drying. Large-scale use grew during the mid-twentieth century for blood plasma and antibiotics, and it later expanded to vaccines, enzymes, foods, and advanced materials. The process produces a dry, porous solid that usually reconstitutes rapidly. It is distinct from simple evaporation because the solvent bypasses the liquid phase during primary removal.
The process generally proceeds in three stages: freezing, primary drying, and secondary drying. During freezing, controlled cooling converts water into ice and may also crystallize or vitrify solutes. In primary drying, the pressure is lowered below the triple point, and heat is supplied so ice sublimes directly to vapor. Secondary drying removes water that remains bound to the solid matrix, yielding a low final water content. Product temperature must stay below the collapse or glass transition temperature to maintain structure. Cycle design therefore balances shelf temperature, chamber pressure, and time.
After primary drying, secondary drying removes water that remains bound to the material. This stage raises the shelf temperature while maintaining low pressure, which encourages desorption of unfrozen water. Residual moisture can be reduced to a low percentage, improving stability for many products. The process parameters, including freezing rate, shelf temperature, and chamber pressure, influence the final pore structure and reconstitution behavior. Control of these variables helps prevent collapse or meltback during drying.
A formulation often contains excipients that protect the active ingredient during freezing and drying. Bulking agents provide structure, while lyoprotectants stabilize sensitive molecules. The freezing step can produce ice crystals whose size and distribution affect the drying rate, and cycle design includes freezing, annealing, and drying phases. If the product temperature rises above a critical value, the cake may collapse or lose its porous structure. Successful lyophilization therefore depends on the interaction between formulation, equipment, and cycle design.
Lyophilization is a dehydration process that removes water from a frozen material by sublimation under low pressure. The material is first frozen to convert liquid water into ice. Next, the pressure is reduced below the triple point of water so that ice changes directly into vapor without passing through a liquid phase. This step is called primary drying. The result is a porous solid or cake that retains the original shape of the frozen solution.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common names | Lyophilization; freeze-drying | Terms used interchangeably. |
| Phase change | Sublimation | Ice converts directly to vapor under vacuum. |
| Typical chamber pressure | 0.01–1 mbar | Below the triple point of water. |
| Primary drying product temperature | −40 to −10 °C | Kept below collapse or glass transition temperature. |
| Water content after drying | 0.5–3% w/w | Varies with formulation and cycle. |
Freeze-drying is distinct from simple evaporation and from spray drying. Evaporation removes water at temperatures above freezing, while spray drying rapidly dries droplets in a heated gas stream. Lyophilization avoids high temperatures, which can be useful for heat-sensitive materials such as proteins, vaccines, and some foods. The porous cake produced by sublimation dissolves or rehydrates more quickly than a dense dried mass. Not all materials tolerate freezing or the pH shifts that can occur as solutes concentrate during ice formation.
Lyophilization removes water from a frozen material by sublimation under reduced pressure. The process begins with freezing, which converts liquid water into ice and fixes the structure of the sample. After freezing, primary drying lowers pressure so ice changes directly to vapor without passing through a liquid phase. Secondary drying then removes bound water that remains after ice sublimation. The result is a dry, porous solid that often retains its original shape.
In practice, lyophilization is slower and more energy intensive than simple drying. Cycle times can range from hours to several days depending on load, container, and formulation. Amorphous materials may require excipients that help preserve structure during freezing and drying. The method is widely used for biological materials, pharmaceuticals, and foods where heat drying would cause unacceptable change. Open questions remain about scaling cycles between laboratory and production equipment, and this gap affects technology transfer.
Lyophilization removes water by freezing a material and then lowering pressure so ice changes directly to vapor. The process relies on sublimation, the phase transition from solid to gas without an intermediate liquid state. Because the material remains frozen during primary drying, the structure often stays porous. This porous matrix can rehydrate quickly when water is added back. The low pressure also allows vapor to leave the solid matrix without boiling.
Industries use lyophilization for pharmaceuticals, biological products, and food preservation. In the pharmaceutical sector, it extends the shelf life of injectable drugs, vaccines, and proteins that are unstable in aqueous solution. Food manufacturers apply freeze-drying to coffee, fruits, and ready meals to retain flavor and texture. The process is energy-intensive and requires specialized equipment, which limits its use to high-value products. Ongoing research examines how formulation and process parameters affect the quality of the final dried product.
Lyophilization, also known as freeze-drying, is a process that removes water from a material by freezing it and then reducing pressure to allow ice to sublimate directly into vapor. The method begins with a freezing step that solidifies the water content. Next, primary drying lowers the pressure below the triple point of water, enabling sublimation without passing through a liquid phase. A final secondary drying step removes bound water through desorption. This sequence produces a dry, porous cake that can be reconstituted later.
The process relies on the phase diagram of water, where the triple point marks the conditions at which ice, liquid water, and vapor coexist. By maintaining pressure below this point, typically around 0.01 to 0.1 millibar, sublimation becomes the dominant mechanism. Formulations often include excipients such as sugars or polymers that act as lyoprotectants and bulking agents. These additives help preserve the structure of the active ingredient and prevent collapse during drying. The choice of excipient and freezing rate influences the final cake morphology and stability.
Equipment for lyophilization includes a vacuum chamber, temperature-controlled shelves, a condenser, and a vacuum pump. A refrigeration system cools the shelves and condenser below the product's freezing point. Process monitoring often uses Pirani and capacitance manometers, thermocouples, and resistance sensors. Cycle development balances product quality with time and energy use. Some products are annealed during freezing to improve crystallization of bulking agents. Open questions remain about scaling cycles between laboratory, pilot, and production freeze-dryers.
Lyophilization, also called freeze-drying, removes water from a frozen material by sublimation under reduced pressure. The process begins with freezing, which converts free water into ice and may also produce a glassy phase. Primary drying then lowers chamber pressure so ice sublimes directly to vapor without passing through a liquid stage. Secondary drying raises the temperature modestly to remove bound water. The result is a porous, dry solid that usually reconstitutes quickly. Each stage influences pore structure, residual moisture, and stability.
The physics of lyophilization depends on phase boundaries and heat and mass transfer. During primary drying, heat supplied to the product must equal the latent heat of sublimation, while water vapor moves through the drying cake to the condenser. If shelf temperature or pressure is set too high, the ice front can exceed the collapse temperature, causing meltback or pore collapse. If conditions are too cold, drying slows and costs rise. Formulation excipients, vial geometry, and freezing rate alter these limits.
=== ERAP1 allosteric site inhibitors === Compound GSK235 Methyl (3R,4R)-1-(3-cyano-4-methyl-6-((4-methyltetrahydro-2H-pyran-4-yl)amino)pyridin-2-yl)-4-isopropylpyrrolidine-3-carboxylate was reported to be a potent, selective and orally available inhibitor of ERAP1. In vivo experiments showed efficacy in tumor growth control in a mouse model as well as therapeutic benefit in an inflammatory autoimmunity murine model. This compound ("GSK235") is a potent in vivo tool for exploring ERAP1 biology and possible therapeutic applications.
== Genome == An. gambiae s.s. genomes have been sequenced three times, once for the M strain, once for the S strain, and once for a hybrid strain. Currently, ~90 miRNA have been predicted in the literature (38 miRNA officially listed in miRBase) for An. gambiae s.s. based upon conserved sequences to miRNA found in Drosophila. Holt et al., 2002 and Neafsey et al., 2016 find transposable elements to be ~13% of the genome, similar to Drosophila melanogaster (also in Diptera). However they find the proportion of TE types to be very different from D. melanogaster with approximately the same composition of long terminal repeat retrotransposons, non-long terminal repeat retrotransposons and DNA transposons. These proportions are believed to be representative of the genus. The genetics and genomics of sex chromosomes have been discovered and studied by Windbichler et al., 2007 and Galizi et al., 2014 (a Physarum polycephalum homing endonuclease which destroys X chromosomes), Windbichler et al., 2008 and Hammond et al., 2016 (methods to reduce the female population), Windbichler et al., 2011 (trans from yeast), Bernardini et al., 2014 (a method to increase the male population), Kyrou et al., 2018 (a female necessary exon and a homing endonuclease to drive it), Taxiarchi et al., 2019 (sex chromosome dynamics in general) and Simoni et al., 2020 (an X chromosome destroying site specific nuclease). See § Gene drive below for their applications. An. gambiae has a high degree of polymorphism.
=== Asymmetric flow === Asymmetric flow FFF (AF4), on the other hand, has only one semi-permeable membrane on the bottom wall of the channel. The cross flow is, therefore, created by the carrier liquid exiting the bottom of the channel. This offers an extremely gentle separation and an “ultra-broad” separation range. The majority of FFF instruments in use are AF4 systems. Main applications are in pharmaceutical research and development for proteins, virus and virus-like particles, and liposomes. AF4 has also been combined with immunoaffinity monolith chromatography for the analysis of plasma-derived extracellular vesicles. CD61-positive platelet-derived vesicles have been isolated using an anti-CD61 monolithic disk and size-fractionated by AF4 coupled with multi-angle and dynamic light-scattering detection. An automated online immunoaffinity chromatography–AF4 system was later used to isolate and fractionate both CD61-positive platelet-derived vesicles and CD9-positive vesicles into size-based subpopulations. The resulting EV fractions were further characterized by Raman spectroscopy and comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography. Related AF4 fractionated EV subpopulations were also used in quartz crystal microbalance studies of antibody and ICAM-1 binding. AF4 can be applied in aqueous and organic solvents, therefore also organic polymers can be separated by this technique. High temperature asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation is available for the separation of high and ultra-high molar mass polymers soluble at temperatures above 150 C.
Neurons, also called nerve cells, are the functional electrically excitable cells of the brain. They can only function in collaboration with other neurons and interneurons in a neural circuit. There are an estimated 100 billion neurons in the human brain. Neurons are polarised cells that are specialised for the conduction of action potentials also called nerve impulses. They can also synthesise membrane and protein. Neurons communicate with other neurons using neurotransmitters released from their synapses, and they may be inhibitory, excitatory or neuromodulatory. Neurons may be termed by their associated neurotransmitter such as excitatory dopaminergic neurons and inhibitory GABAergic neurons. Cortical interneurons only make up around a fifth of the neuronal population but they play a major role in modulating cortical activity needed for cognition and many aspects of learning and memory. Cortical interneurons vary in shape, molecular make-up, and electrophysiology; they function collectively to maintain the balance between excitation and inhibition in the cortex primarily through the use of GABA. Disruption of this balance is a common feature of neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. A cause of the disruption can occur in prenatal development through the exposure to chemicals and environment. In the cerebral cortex different neurons occupy the different cortical layers and include the pyramidal neurons and rosehip neurons. In the cerebellum Purkinje cells and interneuronal Golgi cells predominate.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Norway === A member of parliament is an elected member of the Stortinget. They are called stortingsrepresentanter (lit. 'representatives of the Storting'). Since 2009, Norway has had a unicameral parliament, which previously consisted of the Odelstinget and Lagtinget; the Odelstinget comprised three-quarters, or 127, of the total 169 members, whereas the Lagtinget comprised the remainder. The dividing of the parliament into chambers was only used when dealing with passing regular laws and in cases of impeachment (riksrett). In other matters, such as passing the national budget or changing the constitution (the latter requiring a majority of two-thirds), the chambers were united. The members of the unicameral parliament of Norway are chosen by popular vote for a parliamentary period of four years.
=== Diagnostic Nerve Root Block === A highly targeted Diagnostic Nerve Root Block (DNRB) using local anesthetic (eg, 1 cc of 0.25% bupivacaine) can be used as a diagnostic test to determine if a Tarlov cyst is symptomatic.
=== No development reported === AF-130 – purinergic P2X3 receptor antagonist – migraine [40] B-244 (AOB-101; AOB-102; AOB-103; AOB-201; AOB-202; AOB-203; B244; nitrosomonas eutropha D23) – bacteria replacement – migraine [41] Carabersat (SB-204269) – undefined mechanism of action (anticonvulsant) – migraine [42] CLE-500 – undefined mechanism of action – cluster headache [43] CT-044 analogues - CERSCI Therapeutics – reactive oxygen species (ROS) inhibitor – migraine [44] Cyclobenzaprine extended release (Amrix; Bonelax; EUR-1002) – tricyclic antidepressant (non-selective monoamine reuptake inhibitor and receptor modulator and other actions) – migraine [45] Donepezil (Allydone; Aricept; E-2020; E-2022; Eranz) – acetylcholinesterase inhibitor – migraine [46] Donitriptan mesilate (F-12640) – serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptor agonist and triptan – migraine [47] Estetrol (E4; Donesta) – estrogen (estrogen receptor agonist) – migraine [48] Filorexant (MK-6096) – orexin OX1 and OX2 receptor antagonist – migraine [49] Flunarizine (XEN-007) – calcium channel blocker, non-selective monoamine receptor modulator, other actions – migraine [50] Ibudilast (AV-411; Eyevinal; Ibinal; KC-404; Ketas; MN-166; Pinatos) – phosphodiesterase PDE4 inhibitor – headache [51] IPX-232 – undefined mechanism of action – migraine [52] Ketamine hydrochloride intranasal – ionotropic glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist and dissociative hallucinogen – cluster headache [53] Ondansetron/rizatriptan – oral transmucosal film (rizatriptan/ondansetron; MSRX-202) – combination of ondansetron (serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist and antiemetic) and rizatriptan (triptan) [54] Oxytocin (TI-001; TI-114; TNX-1900; TNX-2900) – oxytocin receptor agonist – headache [55] Piroxicam betadex (β-cyclodextrin piroxicam; Brexecam; Brexidol; Brexin; Brexine; Brexinil; CHF 1194; Cicladol; Cycladol; Flogene; piroxicam β-cyclodextrin) – COX inhibitor/NSAID – migraine, tension-type headache [56] Psilocybin (low-dose psilocybin; BPL-PSILO) – non-selective serotonin receptor agonist and psychedelic hallucinogen – headache [57] Psilocybin (MYCO-001; MYCO-003) – non-selective serotonin receptor agonist and psychedelic hallucinogen – headache [58] Psilocybin (SYNP-101; synthetic psilocybin) – non-selective serotonin receptor agonist and psychedelic hallucinogen – cluster headache, migraine [59] Relutrigine (PRAX-562) – sodium channel blocker – headache [60] Research programme: calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonists - Merck (CGRP receptor antagonists; Imidazoazepanes; MK-2918; MK-8825) – calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor (CGRPR) antagonists [61] Research programme: GPCR modulators - Nxera Pharma – various actions [62] Research programme: migraine and pain therapeutics - NeurAxon – various actions – migraine [63] Research programme: pain and migraine therapy - OptiNose (OPT-1005) – undefined mechanism of action – migraine [64] Rizatriptan intranasal – serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptor agonist and triptan – migraine [65] Rizatriptan oral film – serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptor agonist and triptan – migraine [66] Salubrin (PH80; PH-80; ORG-39479) – vomeropherine – migraine [67] [68] Sumatriptan (Imigran Nasal Spray; Imitrex Nasal Spray) – serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptor agonist and triptan – menstrual migraine [69] Sumatriptan transmucosal (Omexa) – serotonin 5-HT1B and 5-HT1D receptor agonist and triptan – migraine [70] Zucapsaicin (cis-capsaicin; Civamide; Civanex; Dolorac; Neuroderm; Zuacta) – transient receptor potential cation channel subfamily V member 1 (TRPV1) agonist – cluster headache, migraine [71]
Once again, RuBisCO activase can promote the release of these analogs from the catalytic sites and maintain the enzyme in a catalytically active form. However, at high temperatures, RuBisCO activase aggregates and can no longer activate RuBisCO. This contributes to the decreased carboxylating capacity observed during heat stress.
=== 27 February === Russia announced the creation of the Bohdan Khmelnytsky Battalion composed mostly of Ukrainian prisoners of war. Sending prisoners of war into a combat zone would be a violation of the Geneva conventions.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Regulatory macrophages === Glucocorticoids can contribute to the development of regulatory macrophages. These macrophages produce Interleukin 10 and inhibit immune system response (See below for Effect on cancer). Tumor-associated macrophages may contain a large population of regulatory macrophages.
Leybold – Fundamentals of Vacuum Technology (PDF) VIDEO on the nature of vacuum by Canadian astrophysicist Doctor P The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology American Vacuum Society Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology A Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B FAQ on explosive decompression and vacuum exposure. Discussion of the effects on humans of exposure to hard vacuum. Roberts, Mark D. (2000). "Vacuum Energy". High Energy Physics – Theory: hep–th/0012062. arXiv:hep-th/0012062. Bibcode:2000hep.th...12062R. Vacuum, Production of Space "Much Ado About Nothing" by Professor John D. Barrow, Gresham College Free pdf copy of The Structured Vacuum – thinking about nothing by Johann Rafelski and Berndt Muller (1985) ISBN 3-87144-889-3.
While classical Jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, Jewish vegetarians often cite Jewish principles regarding animal welfare, environmental ethics, moral character, and health as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet. Rabbis may advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary "pain to living creatures" (tza'ar ba'alei hayyim). Some Jewish vegetarian groups and activists believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet. The book of Daniel starts in its first chapter with the benefits of vegetarianism. Due to its size, its late time of origin and its revealing content, the book is of particular importance for the time of the following exile, which lasts now for 2000 years and technically still goes on until the Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt. A diet described as "pulse and water" is presented along benefits such as accordance with the biblical dietary laws, health, beauty, wisdom and vision. Vegetarianism can be seen as a safeguard around the dietary laws or the beautification of them. Jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular among Israeli Jews. In 2016, Israel was described as "the most vegan country on Earth", as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products. Interest in veganism has grown among both non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews in Israel.
On January 26, 2006, Chipotle made its initial public offering (IPO) after increasing the share price twice due to high pre-IPO demand. At the time, Chipotle had 500 stores. In its first day as a public company, the stock rose exactly 100%, resulting in the best U.S.-based IPO in six years, and the second-best IPO for a restaurant after Boston Market. The money from the offering was then used to fund new store growth. In March 2005, Monty Moran was appointed president and chief operating officer of Chipotle while Ells remained chairman and CEO. In October 2006, McDonald's fully divested from Chipotle. This was part of a larger initiative for McDonald's to divest all of its non-core business restaurants—Chipotle, Donatos Pizza, and Boston Market—so that it could focus on the main McDonald's chain. McDonald's had invested approximately $360 million into Chipotle, and took out $1.5 billion. McDonald's had attempted to get Chipotle to add drive-through windows and a breakfast menu, which Ells resisted. In 2008, Chipotle opened its first location outside of the United States in Toronto. In January 2009, president and chief operating officer Monty Moran was promoted to co-CEO, a position that he would share with Ells, while Moran retained his president position. In a list of fastest-growing restaurant chains in 2009, Chipotle was ranked eighth, based on increases in U.S. sales over the past year, and in 2010 Chipotle was ranked third. Consumer Reports ranked Chipotle as the best Mexican fast-food chain in 2011. The company serves approximately 750,000 customers per day.
== Affimer proteins == Affimer proteins are small robust affinity reagents, with a molecular weight of 12–14kDa. They are engineered to bind to their target proteins with high affinity and specificity and as such are a member of the synthetic antibody family. The Affimer protein scaffold is derived from the cysteine protease inhibitor family of cystatins. Within the protein scaffold there exist two variable peptide loops and a variable N-terminal sequence that provide a high affinity binding surface for the specific target protein. Affimer binders have been produced to a large number of targets including ubiquitin chains, immunoglobulins and C-reactive protein for use in a number of molecular recognition applications. Affimer technology has been commercialised and developed by Avacta Life Sciences, who are developing Affimer binders as reagents for research, diagnostic and therapeutic applications.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Yes. Lyophilization and freeze-drying are synonyms for the same vacuum-assisted sublimation process. The term lyophilization is more common in pharmaceutical and laboratory settings, while freeze-drying is widely used in food and general contexts.
Reduced pressure lowers the boiling point of water and allows ice to sublime below its triple point. Without sufficient vacuum, melting or boiling may occur instead of sublimation, which can damage the product structure.
Heat and mass transfer limit drying once the ice front recedes. The dried layer insulates the frozen core and resists vapor flow, so increasing shelf temperature too quickly can cause collapse or meltback.
Lyophilization removes water by sublimation from a frozen material, while evaporation changes liquid water into vapor. The low-pressure freezing step avoids the liquid phase and can preserve heat-sensitive structures.